Information Literacy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Information Literacy - Assignment Example This quotation is appealing as it captures everything about information literacy. This is so because information literacy does not mean just the mere knowledge of information that is in existence but the use of that information to solve problems and make decisions for the present and future. In this age unlike a few decades before, information has increased abundantly and especially in the internet which is currently the main source of information worldwide. This much information is petrifying and confusing to people. It therefore needs sorting out to find out which of the information is relevant and which is not depending on the needs of the person. When an individual is information literate, it means that they have the ability to be able to do that sorting out and as swiftly as possible without having any worries, requiring assistance or even taking a lot of time to do so. Information literacy is a skill therefore that everyone needs to have so that to be at par with the current technological trends and especially as it relates to communication with people not only within one’s area but globally as

Relative market share Essay Example for Free

Relative market share Essay (Ratio of company share to share of largest competitor) HIGH LOW â€Å"STAR† â€Å"QUESTION MARK† â€Å"CASH COW† â€Å"DOG† Figure 2 BCG Matrix of BMW 3. 1 Porter’s five forces Porter’s Five Forces are business analysis tools that help companies to assess the environmental forces that influence a company. This business analysis tool works by dividing environmental forces into five different categories (Figure 3). The interesting feature of Porter Five Forces is it leads companies to understand the extent of challenges faced by companies within a particular industry as the framework provides a systematic way of thinking about how competitive forces work at industry level and how they determine profitability. Figure 3 Porters Five Forces 3. 1. 1 Rivalry Rivalry exhibits the intensity of competition in a particular market. In case of BMW, the company faces fierce competition since currently there are many automobile manufacturers that compete in the same premium markets. In addition, many multi segment automobile manufacturers also set up special division to target premium market like Toyota Motor that set up Lexus brand to compete with premium cars like BMW, Mercedes Benz, Rolls-Royce, and Jaguar. Figure 4 shows the global auto industry ranking by market cap as of April 2006. The figure describes that at that time, BMW is not listed in the ranking and therefore they need multi strategy to generate greater market capitals. Figure 4 Global Auto Ranking 3. 1. 2 Threat of Substitutes Substitute products are products of other industries that may have significant impact to the prices decision and other features of automobile products. In case of BMW, the product substitutions are many kinds of affordable transportations including mass transports such as intercity high-speed trains, trams, motor bikes, and bicycles. Another product substitution for BMW is the increasing demands for green technology. In automobile industry, it refers to the use of alternative technology like hybrid technology or solar cells. Although the market share of these products are still relatively low, currently BMW has not shown intense program to launch the green car. In fact, several automobile manufacturers have started their program to head for producing the future cars that use hybrid cars like Toyota Prius and Alphard and Honda Civic, and GM’s Saturn Vue Green Line. 3. 1. 3 Buyer Power Buyer power has significant impact on the producing industry. The buyer power is perceived to be strong enough if they are in the minority in numbers and there are numerous producers or automobile manufacturers. In the automobile industry the buyer is the people who purchase vehicles or cars. Buyers have considerably high bargaining power because customers usually have much information regarding the vehicle they intend to purchase. They are usually knowledgeable about cars specifications, price, and dimension since most car manufacturers identify these in brochures and on websites. Another critical decision that buyers have is about the fuel consumption of cars. This information is rarely printed in cars brochures but usually they get the information for auto magazines that conduct test drive. Buyers have other powerful forces on the automobile industry since the advanced Internet technology lets customers to shop online or design and customize their cars. A key feature of Internet is customization in which BMW also enable customers to customize some features of their purchased cars in order to suit their needs. In addition, automobile industry exhibits low switching costs because customers can easily move to one dealer to another during the selection process. They can also trade their ole cars when buying new ones since many dealers now also own or cooperate with used car divisions. Figure 5 shows the global auto production representing the demands-production capability that each brand/automobile manufacturers have. In the figure, BMW is in the 14th place. However, it does not reflect the quality of BMW since BMW like other European premium cars are well-known for their quality products. Figure 5 Global Auto Productions by Manufacturers in 2002 Source: OICA 3. 1. 4 Supplier Power Supplier power is typically low within the motor industry because a vehicle has various amounts of different components and there are a large number of suppliers available to cater for this. This means Toyota/GM can easily swap suppliers if they are not happy with the quality or price of the components ordered.

The Childcare Act 2006 in Early Years Education

The Childcare Act 2006 in Early Years Education Unit 3: Building Positive Relationships Every child deserves a good start in life and support to fulfil their potential. Children develop quickly in the early years. A secure, safe and happy childhood is important in its own right. High quality early and pre-school learning, together, provide the foundation children need to make the most of their abilities and talents as they grow up. Childminders and childcare providers registered on the Early Years Register must meet the legal requirements set out in the Childcare Act 2006 and associated regulations in order to remain registered. The Childcare Act 2006 provides for the Early Years Foundation Stage Learning and development requirements to comprise 3 elements: The early learning goals. The educational programmes the matters, skills and processes which are required to be taught to young children. The assessment arrangements for assessing young children to ascertain their achievements. The requirements laid down must be delivered by the child care provider with no exceptions. Document published by the Department for Education on 27 March 20012 states that â€Å"there are seven areas of learning and development that must shape educational programmes in early years settings†. Personal, social and emotional development involves helping children to develop a positive sense of themselves, and others; to form positive relationships and develop respect for others; to develop social skills and learn how to manage their feelings; to understand appropriate behaviour in groups; and to have confidence in their own abilities. Physical development involves providing opportunities for young children to be active and interactive, and to develop their coordination, control, and movement. Children must also be helped to understand the importance of physical activity, and to make healthy choices in relation to food. Communication and language development involves giving children opportunities to speak and listen in a range of situations and to develop their confidence and skills in expressing themselves. Literacy development involves encouraging children to read and write, both through listening to others reading, and being encouraged to begin to read and write themselves. Children must be given access to a wide range of reading materials – books, poems, and other written materials, to ignite their interest. Mathematics involves providing children with opportunities to practise and improve their skills in counting numbers, calculating simple addition and subtraction problems, and to describe shapes, spaces, and measures. Understanding the world involves guiding children to make sense of their physical world and their community through opportunities to explore, observe and find out about people, places, technology and the environment. Expressive arts and design involves supporting children to explore and play with a wide range of media and materials, as well as providing opportunities and encouragement for sharing their thoughts, ideas and feelings through a variety of activities in art, music, movement, dance, role-play, and design and technology. Parents and carers play an important role in assisting children to build self-respect, and then through the childs personal understanding of that experience develop the values and skills needed to express respect to others. This interactional process becomes a continuous cycle, as children with strong self-respect engage in constructive positive behaviours towards themselves and others, attracting praise and reinforcement, thus building further self-respect and further facilitating the capacity to demonstrate respect for others. Of course the counter to that occurs when a child experiences continuous disrespect, fails to build healthy self-respect, and then responds to those destructive and negative feelings by treating others in similarly disrespectful ways. It is important that children learn about other people’s feelings and that we show them how we behave in society and to except all walks of life. We could help them to do this by having resources that show the different types of people. For example wheelchair users, people who are hard of hearing and other disabilities etc. You could also celebrate festivals from different cultures or religion. It is good to read the children stories about friendships and display posters that shoe diversity. Showing a child praise when they behave in a socially acceptable manner will give them more confidence and make them feel respected themselves. Introducing a child to their own culture, traditions, and heritage helps the child valuing themselves and then others. Researchers (for example, Brown, 2008; Hughes et al., 2006) consistently find that young people from minority groups have better life outcomes when they develop a sense of pride in their own heritage and culture. As parents, we can cultivate this strength by helping our children participate in meaningful activities and rituals, spend time with others who share their culture or tradition, or use their native or first language. It also comes from having positive messages and role models in the media and culture that reinforce the value of one’s heritage, culture, and identity. If I was caring for a group of children from diverse cultural or ethnic backgrounds I would encourage them to explore their heritage and make it an educational project for the whole group. By making the approach inclusive rather than exclusive it would foster a greater understanding of cultural differences and backgrounds amongst all the children. For example: each week could be devoted to an individual child’s particular background with that child encouraged to explore and learn about their culture (traditions, religion, celebrations, food, history) – the depth of research being determined by the child’s age. The child could make a presentation to the group and be encouraged to find photos and other items to help present their culture. The child could possibly be encouraged to bring a family member with them to help with their presentation (if possible). The other children in the group would engage with the activity by making their own posters, drawings and deco rations with the theme of the culture being presented. This activity would carry on for several weeks depending on the size of the group. As an alternative, if the group was not primarily multi-cultural the above plan could still be used with a cultural theme being decided on in advance and the children being encouraged to learn about the culture and share their findings with the group. Consistency in parenthood and for children is having the rules, routines and expectations the same over the course of time. This helps the child better understand rules and discipline, and it helps the childs world stay predictable and allows it to be a less confusing situation. Consistency helps children learn to be accountable for their actions. Consistency is extremely important because children need set limits. When a child is allowed to do things and then reprimanded it is confusing to them. These children will push limits of adults while thinking it is okay to do so. Consistency will help the child to understand what is tolerable and what is not. What is acceptable and what is unacceptable. Being fair is only right. Children should be taught that for every action there is a consequence. It is also important for these children to help set the guidelines for what is a consequence. This should be done before the consequence is needed, not the moment of. Positive reinforcement allows for the children to continue to have appropriate actions and become intrinsically motivated to do these actions. Positive reinforcement should be reduced over time otherwise the children will always seek the reinforcement instead of just doing the good deed in itself. With negative behaviour it is important that you always give a reason for when you say no. The child will then know that it is not safe to cross the street because they might get hurt, or it is not safe to stand on the table because they might fall. If a child is given a reason for negative behaviour it is usually understood better and therefore will likely not happen again. And if you must give a child a limit follow through, or it will not work again the next time. The child will then push your limits and try to again get off of the hook. In my opinion quiet time is a perfect time for children to just sit quietly and calm down and it helps you to simply get on with your work with minimum disruption. A child can be taken to quiet time without the whole class knowing and it is most effective when you simply, quietly and calmly walk up to a child and ask them to come to quiet time. Quiet time is not to be confused with the naughty spot or naughty chair. There is a different negative feeling to being on the naughty spot, than there is to having quiet time. The naughty chair implies that the child is naughty, which is of course negative and unhelpful. Quiet time is not about making a child feel bad but an opportunity for a child to be taken out of a disruptive situation and as a consequence for unwanted behaviour. This way you are far more likely to end unwanted behaviour rather than temporarily distracted a child from it. Another good strategy is to acknowledge and praise good behaviour and mature interactions with others, rather than only acknowledging bad behaviour and aggression. Often, a child will engage in bad behaviour, including fighting with others, in order to gain the attention of nearby adults. Only paying attention to negative behaviour reinforces the idea that negative behaviour gets results. Conflict between children and adults or between children can be very distressing. In child care settings conflict is very common for children having trouble with an adult authority. Over the years many behavioural theorists debated whether conflict has a positive or negative impact on child development. Some of them felt that conflict is a natural part of life. Others viewed conflict as a negative occurrence instead of being accepted as part of being human. Research carried out by Dennis, Colwell and Lindsey from the Texas Tech University found that there are gender differences between children identifying areas of conflict. The girls tended to have more conflict with their peers over the things that had been said displaying a child to child conflict, whereas the boys manifested themselves in the form of disobeying the teacher. Research supports work of Vygotsky who find that â€Å"†¦ conflict provides for a learning experience for children when they have correct modelling or â€Å"scaffolding† from adults† (Travick-Smith, 2003,p54). The research showed that there were certainly gender differences, with girls’ conflicts arising from reaction to â€Å"words† and boys’ conflicts with â€Å"actions†. Among the many tasks of early childhood, two stand out: to communicate needs in a respectful way to other children and to listen with respect to the ideas of others. These areas of learning are important to all young children, but especially to those who participate in group settings away from home – preschool and child care programmes, playgroups, or summer camps. With the support of knowledgeable adults, children are able to learn the skills necessary for effective communication within peer groups. As children learn to be together in a group, they will inevitably experience conflict with another child. Many adults find conflict among children frustrating and feel uncertain about how to be helpful. However, when adults are thoughtful and skilled in their approach to classroom conflict, children benefit. Conflict resolution is an important foundation for future growth and learning.   References Department for Education, 2012. Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage. Runcorn: Department for Education. Riddall-Leech, S. (2010) Home-Based Childcare, Oxford, Pearson Publ Oxford Heinemann. Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage (July 2006) the Child care act 2006. Tassoni, P. Beith, K. Bulman, K. Eldridge, H. (2007) Child Care and Education. Publ. Heinemann.

The Colonization of Hawaii and Tourism Essay -- Hawaii Tourism History

The Colonization of Hawaii and Tourism Since 1840 the Hawaiian Islands have been an escape to a tropical paradise for millions of tourists. People all over the world encounter alluring, romanticized pictures of Hawai'i's lush, tropical vegetation, exotic animals, beautiful beaches, crystal clear water, and fantastical women. This is the Hawai'i tourists know. This is the Hawai’i they visit. However, this Hawai'i is a state of mind, a corporate-produced image existing on the surface. More precisely, it is an aftermath of relentless colonization of the islands' native inhabitants by the United States. These native Hawaiians experience a completely different Hawai'i from the paradise tourists enjoy. No one makes this as clear as Haunani-Kay Trask, a native Hawaiian author. In her book, From a Native Daughter: Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawai'i and through her poetry in Light in the Crevice Never Seen, Trask provides an intimate account of the tourist industry's impact on native Hawaiian culture. She presents a neg ative perspective of the violence, pollution, commercial development, and cultural exploitation produced by the tourist industry. Trask unveils the cruel reality of suffering and struggling through a native Hawaiian discourse. Most of the world is unaware of this. To examine various discourses, it is crucial that the idea of discourse and the way in which discourses operate is clear. A discourse is a language, or more precisely, a way of representation and expression. These "ways of talking, thinking, or representing a particular subject or topic produce meaningful knowledge about the subject" (Hall 205). Therefore, the importance of discourses lies in this "meaningful knowledge," which reflects a group’s ideolo... ...e" (Trask xix). This incident beautifully illustrates and signifies tourism's impact in American society. Like most Americans, this woman uses a discourse that has been shaped by tourist advertisements and souvenirs. The woman's statement implies that Trask resembles what the tourist industry projects, as if this image created Hawaiian culture. As Trask asserts, Hawaiian culture existed long before tourism and has been exploited by tourism in the form of advertisements and items such as postcards. Along with the violence, endangered environment, and poverty, this exploitation is what the tourist industry does not want to show. However, this is the Hawai'i Haunani-Kay Trask lives in everyday. "This is Hawai'i, once the most fragile and precious of sacred places, now transformed by the American behemoth into a dying land. Only a whispering spirit remains" (Trask 19).

Malnutrition in India Essay

Introduction :- Malnutrition is found to be a leading killer through out the world, with under nutrition in the developing world the main nutrition problem. The World Bank Estimate that India is ranked 2nd in the world of the number of children suffering from malnutrition after Bangladesh (1998), where 47% of the Children exhibit a degree of malnutrition. India is one of the fastest growing country in terms of population and economic growth rate , sitting at a population of near about 1200 million (December 2010) and economy growing by 9% GDP growth rate from 2007-2008. Since independence Indian economy considered as low income country with majority of population at or below the poverty line which is lead to problems of malnutrition, hunger etc. the combination of people leaving in poverty and the recent economic growth of India (as well as Maharashtra)has led to the co-emergence of two type of malnutrition: 1) Undernutrition 2) Overnutrition. The National Family Healthy survey 2005-2006 shows that, while Maharashtra is one of the most developed State among the country, It has also problem of Malnutrition exists, but nutrition situation in Maharashtra is slightly better than the national average. National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau (NNMB) study quoted that more than 40 lakh children were affected with grade 2 to 4 malnutrition in Maharashtra. This indicate the seriousness of the problem of malnutrition. Definition of the Term Malnutrition Malnutrition carries different connotations to different people. To some, malnutrition means undernourishment, while to others it means starvation. Some confuse malnutrition with hunger while others consider malnutrition as undernutrition. The writer would like to define the term malnutrition in the following pages and differentiate it from the other similar terms. Malnutrition The word malnutrition might best be reserved to indicate the state of ill-health of a population or of any group of people in so far as that condition is caused either by malnourishment or undernourishment. It is thus, to an extent, a medical term or a term for public health purposes. The students of public health are showing a tendency to use that term in such a sense more consistently. The existence of malnutrition is revealed in various morbid conditions and it is measurable in terms of indices which are medical, anthropological, or biostatistical (such as height, weight, and special diseases, etc. ) Malnutrition is the condition that develops when the body does not get right amount of Vitamins, Minerals and other nutrition’s (Proteins) is needs to maintains healthy tissues and organ function.† Malnutrition occurs in people who are either undernourished or over nourished. Undernutrition is a consequence of consuming too few essential nutrients or excreting them more rapidly than they can be replaced. Infants, teenagers, young children, pregnant and breastfeeding women require additional nutrients. Overnutrition results from eating too much; eating too many of the wrong things, not exercising enough or taking too many vitamins or other dietary replacement Malnourishment Refers to an actual condition of diets in which not the quantity, but the quality of the food stuff is also involved. According to the present knowledge, a diet must supply some 30 or more nutrients in order to provide the proteins of high quality, as well as energy yielding food. A population is malnourished, even if it is able to use and is in the habit of using a quantity of energy yielding food stuffs, but if the people are either unable or unaccustomed to maintain a balanced diet including all the proper nutritive elements in correct proportion, is still suffering from malnourishment Undernourishment â€Å"Expresses a dietary condition largely among the working people in which there is an actual insufficiency both in quantity and in quality of nutritive elements needed for health and well-being.†- Objectives of the study: We have attempted to discuss the crucial issue child malnutrition in Maharashtra State. Therefore we look at the following objectives regarding malnutrition study in the state. 1. To discuss the status of child malnutrition in the state. 2. To find out the major causes of malnutrition. 3. To find out the effects / incidence of malnutrition problem. 4. To address the way to eradicate the malnutrition problems. Methodology: In this research paper we mostly used the secondary kind of data for analysis the issue. Researchers used macro-analysis method for analyze the malnutrition in the country as well as Maharashtra State. Types of Malnutrition: Each form of malnutrition depends on what nutrients are missing in the diet, for how long and what age. A) Proteins Energy Malnutrition (PEM): This is the most basic kind of malnutrition, results from a diet lacking in energy and Protein because of a deficit in all major macro nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats and Proteins. B) Micronutrients deficiencies: Micronutrients deficiencies are also a widespread problem in India. More than 75% of preschool children suffer from iron deficiency anemia (IDA) and 57%  preschool children have subclinical vitamin A deficiency (VAD). Iodine deficiency is endemic in 85% districts (In India) mostly due to the lack of iodized salt. The prevalence of deferent micro nutrients deficiency varies widely across states. Degrees of Malnutrition: Classification of Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) is done by Gomez. Degree of PEM % of desired body weight for age and sex. 1. Mild Malnutrition (Grade I ) 90% -100% 2. Moderate Malnutrition (Grade II) 75% – 89% 3. Severe Malnutrition (Grade III) < 60% Status of Malnutrition in Maharashtra :- As far as Maharashtra State is concern, deaths regarding to the malnutrition seems high in tribal dominated districts e.g. Gadchiroli, Amravati, Yewatmal, Chandrapur, Bhandara and Melghat etc. Dr. Abhay Bang committee (2004) reported that between 1.20 lakh and 1.75 lakh children diet every year in the state for medical reasons. The report blamed an Insensitive bureaucracy for the plight of nearly 8 lakh children whose lives were threatened by grade 3 or 4 malnutrition. According to the report during 1988 to 2002 the percentage of affected by grade 3 or 4 malnutrition had fallen by mere 0.6% only which is found little improvements. According to National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau (NNMB) study quoted that more than 40lakh children were affected with grade 2 to 4 malnutrition  in Maharashtra. It estimated that 82000 children died every Year in rural area’s of the state 23, 500 in the tribal area’s and 56000 in urban slums. According to the government statistics in the entire Maharashtra state child death were estimated 45,000 (during July 2004 to June 2005) due to the malnutrition out of these 12,000 fall prey to severe malnutrition and the remaining 33,000 children died due to the mild or moderate malnutrition. The malnutrition is also the underlying cause in about 480 of the 2850 maternal deaths each year in the state. Child Death And Action Group (CDSAG) study found that 10.4% child death are recorded on an account of malnutrition in the state. Tribal Dominated Districts of Amravati, Yewatmal, Gadchiroli, Chandrapur and Bhandara in Vidarbh region as well as Melghat in North Maharashtra region were affected worsely by malnutrition problem. Ø Almost 38% of children under age three are stunted (India – 38.4%) Ø Almost 40% are underweight (India – 45.9%) Ø There is a strong correlation between child malnutrition and the level of maternal education. Ø There are significance differences between rural and urban area’s, where the rural area’s being more affected by malnutrition. Ø The prevalence of overweight and obesity in Maharashtra is higher than the national average for both male and female. Causes of Malnutrition: 1. The economist Amartya Sen observed that poverty is major cause of malnutrition and famine has always a problem of poverty and unbalanced distribution of food. 2. Hike in food prices or food inflation. 3. Insufficient food production (availability) 4. Changes in climate threaten the food security. 5. People with drug or alcohol dependencies are also at increased risk of malnutrition. Effect of Malnutrition: Malnutrition including both protein energy malnutrition and micro nutrient deficiencies not only affect physical appearance and energy level, but also directly affects many aspects of the children mental functions, growth and development. Ø According to the Jean Ziegler UN special report on the right to food (for 2000 to March 2008), mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality in 2006. One in twelve people world wide is malnourished. Ø WHO, also indicate that malnutrition is the biggest contributor to child mortality. Ø Malnourished children grow up with worse health and lower educational achievements. Their own children also tend to be smaller. Ø Malnutrition increases the risk of infection and infectious disease. Ø Malnutrition affects adversely physically as well as psychologically. Malnutrition in the form of ioden deficiency is most common preventable cause of mental impairment worldwide. Ø Ioden deficiency specially in pregnant women and infants, lowered intelligence by 10 to 15 I.Q. points. Ø Malnutrition can also be a consequence of other health issues such as  diarrheal disease or chronic illness specially disease of intestinal tract, Kidney’s and liver. Programs to address eradicate the Malnutrition The government of India has launched several programs to converge the growing malnutrition problems in the country. They include ICDS, NCF, National health mission. 1. Integrate child development scheme (ICDS):- Indian government has starter this ICDS program in the year 1975 for improving the health of mothers and children development program is on of largest in the world. It reaches more than 34 million children aged 0-6 years and 7 million pregnant and getting mothers. 2. National Children Fund (NCF):- This Fund was created during the international year of the child in 1979. This Fund provides support to the voluntary organizations that help the welfare of children. 3. United Nations Children Fund (UNCF):- UNISEF has been supporting India from last six decade in a number of sectors like child development, women development support for community based converged services health, education, nutrition, water and sanitation, childhood disability, children in especially difficult circumstances. National Rural Health Mission: This mission was created for the years 2005-2012 and its goal is to â€Å"Improve the availability of and access to quality health care by people, especially for those residing in rural area, the poor women and children.† 1. Objective of the mission are:- Ø Reduce Infant Mortality Rate (IMR). Ø Provide access to integrated compressive primary health care. Ø Revitalize local health tradition and mainstream AYUSH. (This mission has set up strategies and action plan to meet all of its goals.) 2. The best wa y to prevent the condition is to eat a healthy balanced diet that contains food from all the major groups like carbohydrates, fruits and vegetable, Protein, dairy and fats. 3. As well as eating healthy, you should aim to drink at least 1.2 liters of fluid a day. 45,000 die of malnutrition every year in MaharashtraDespite being among the wealthiest states in the country, almost half Maharashtra’s children are undernourished and one-third of adults are underweight, says a recent report by the NGO SATHI. Forty-five-thousand children die of malnutrition every year in the state, according to ‘A report on nutritional crisis in Maharashtra’ by the Pune-based SATHI (Support for Advocacy and Training to Health Initiatives). One-third of adults are underweight, and 15% severely underweight.The two major schemes for children meant to prevent such deaths are the midday meal scheme and the Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS). But the state government spends just 0.8% of its gross domestic product on these schemes, the report states. More children die of mild or moderate malnutrition (33,000) than of severe malnutrition (12,000). Malnutrition is also the underlying cause of death of 480 of the 2,850 malnutrition deaths in the st ate every year. â€Å"A large number of people in Maharashtra do not get enough to eat and are suffering from serious nutritional deficiencies,† said the coordinator of SATHI, Abhay Shukla, at a press conference to release the report on February 3, 2010. The report takes into account the findings of the National Family Health Survey-3 and the National Sample Survey. The report points out that chronic hunger is not confined to rural areas, as is popularly believed; urban populations in coastal regions, including the city of Mumbai, have the highest prevalence of calorie deficiency (43%) in the state. Calculations made using the per-consumer-unit-calories norm of 2,400 in rural areas and 2,100 in urban areas reveals that the incidence of calories-based poverty is 54% in rural areas and 39.5% in urban areas. The report is critical of government  schemes like the ICDS. Grade 3 and 4 malnutrition is grossly underreported under the scheme as workers lack the skills and equipment to accurately weigh and classify children. Severe malnutrition is often underreported as it points to a failure of the programme. The midday meal scheme too has been underperforming, according to the report. Only 12% of schools surveyed provided midday meals, and many gave only one component of the meal. Moreover, not a single school provided the stipulated 300 calories and 8-12 grams of protein. India’s performance on the nutrition front is poor overall. According to the National Family Health Survey-3 (up to 2005-06), almost half of children under 5 years of age (48%) are stunted, that is, too short for their age, an indicator of chronic malnutrition; 43% are underweight. The proportion of severely undernourished children is also notable — 24% are severely stunted and 16% are severely underweight. The 2009 annual budget earmarked just 4.15% for children when the population under 18 years of age is 447 million. Maharashtra’s poor performance on the health front comes despite it being one of the high GDP states. Though the country as a whole has seen GDP grow by 3.95% per year, between 1980 and 2005, the percentage of underweight children under 3 went down by just 6% , from 52% to 46% between 1992 and 2005. For every 3-4% increase in per capita income, the underweight rate should decline by 1%. This has not happened in India, pointing to the need for more inclusive growth and better delivery and distribution of schemes targeted at malnutrition. Malnutrition among Maharashtra’s tribalsMore than 98 children died in three months of 2005, in Akkalkuwa block of Nandurbar district. Of these, 71 children were found to be severely malnourished.A survey by the Punarvasan Sangharsh Samiti revealed that the government is unaware of the scale of malnutrition in the area. Only 10% of malnourished children figure in the government records. The survey also showed that not only were the children malnourished, their mothers were too. The weight of adult mothers ranged between 40-45 kg.Girls constituted around half the total number of malnourished children, indicating the precarious condition of these ‘future mothers’. The survey also revealed that although generations of malnourished children are born in this region, the government still does not look beyond the singular health aspect of the problem, on the basis of which mitigation measures are designed. Unless the issue of malnutrition is addressed comprehensively, the  tribal community in this part of the country is headed for extinction.These and other startling revelations form part of a report brought out by the Punarvasan Sangharsh Samiti, which has been actively mobilising the tribal population of Nandurbar district for the last decade. The report, titled ‘Maranatach He Jag Jagate’, is based on the survey which was carried out in 22 villages. And information obtained through the Right to Information Act.The tribals of Nandurbar are engaged in a continuous struggle for existence. Malnutrition and child mortality is part of their everyday lives, even as issues related to rights over natural resources and means of livelihood ga in greater urgency with each passing year.Attempts to remedy malnutrition and child mortality by singling it out will not deliver the desired results. ‘Maranatach He Jag Jagate’ attempts to take stock of the situation and get at the root of the problem. The report analyses the situation on the ground and suggests ways to tackle the problem head-on. Obviously there is the need for firm action by the government and the active involvement of society at large.Some basic facts about the survey: * The survey was undertaken in 22 villages of Akkalkuwa block, Nandurbar district. The weights of mothers in seven villages and two rehabilitation and resettlement sites of the Sardar Sarovar Project were recorded. The facts that emerged from the survey were shocking. In April, May and June 2005, 98 children died in Akkalkuwa block alone and of these 71 children were malnourished. Of the malnourished children, 45 were found to be in the second stage of malnutrition. Meanwhile, the government refuses to accept that the children died from malnutrition. * Punarvasan Sangharsh Samiti recorded the weights of children in 22 villages and co mpared this data with that of the government. The comparison showed that the government has only 10% of the facts related to malnutrition. In effect, it is unaware of 90% of malnutrition cases. According to the survey, the number of third-grade malnutrition among children in April was 127, in May 135 and in June 104; the government records showed only 14, 42 and 17 children as malnourished in this grade respectively. The survey figures for fourth-grade malnutrition, during these months, were 61, 50 and 35; the government figures were 6, 6 and 3 respectively. (The figures quoted here were obtained from the government under the Right to Information Act). * Of the 22 villages in the survey, six have been declared ‘hyper-sensitive’ by the government. The  survey showed that the combined number of third and fourth-grade malnutrition among children in April, May and June stood at 100, 104 and 72; the government records showed only six children were malnourished. * Of the total number of malnourished children, half were girls. This raises a serious question about the next generation. * With this question in mind, the Punarvasan Sangharsh Samiti conducted a survey in six villages and two rehabilitation and resettlement sites in which the weights of fully-grown mothers were assessed. The survey showed that the weights ranged between 40-45 kg. This emphasises the need for a comprehensive study of the ages of young mothers, stage of motherhood and its link with malnutrition. It also suggests that the process of malnutrition begins in the womb itself. * The root of the problem is lack of livelihoods. Measures in the areas of health, education, employment and supply do not create sustainable livelihood sources and therefore cannot, in themselves, be decisive remedies to the problem of malnutrition. Let’s take a closer look at the villages covered in the survey.The 22 villages are spread out in the plains as well as in hilly regions of the Satpudas. Of the villages, Khai, Andharbari, Ohwa, Kaulavimal, Toknapimpri, Maliamba, Kondvapada, Thana and Beti have been de clared ‘hyper-sensitive’ villages under the Navsanjivani Scheme, which is touted as the answer to the malnutrition problem. Of the 22 villages, seven villages — Khai, Andharbari, Ohwa, Kaulavimal, Miryabari, Valamba and Pimpalgaon — do not have a yearlong motorable road and are therefore inaccessible. After a point one has to walk to get to the village. Four villages — Thanavihir, Guliamba, Amali and Pimpalgaon — are within a periphery of 12 km from the block headquarters of Akkalkuwa, but they are connected to a remote primary health centre (PHC) in Dab, situated deep in the third range of the Satpudas. One has to pay Rs 15 to get to the PHC by jeep; to reach Akkalkuwa one has to pay Rs 5.Other examples are Ambabri, Andharbari, Bharadipadar and Khai. These villages are connected to the Moramba PHC. To reach Moramba by car one has to travel via Khapar, covering a distance of 17-18 km. Although there is a primary health centre in Khapar, villagers from these four villages have to bypass it and go on to Moramba. The other option to get to Moramba directly is to walk through the h ills of the Satpudas for around 7-8 km. This shows up a serious flaw in the state government’s policy with regard to the location and coverage of primary  health centres. The village of Ohwa is connected to the Horaphali PHC, which is 22 km away. There is no road connecting the village with the centre; people have to walk through the Satpuda hills to get to it. To correct the situation the government sanctioned a health centre for Ohwa in 2004. But, although the tribal development department made provision to build the primary health centre, the health department still has to sanction the plan.Seven villages — Andharbari, Kaulavi, Bari, Pimpalgaon, Valamba, Maliamba and Kondvapada — do not have a public distribution system (PDS) outlet. Tribals from these villages are forced to walk 3-4 km to reach a PDS outlet. Of the 22 surveyed villages, 11 do not have a single job-creation opportunity under the state’s well-known Employment Guarantee Scheme (EGS). The residents of seven villages did receive some form of employment but only for a period of around a month.The survey also covered two rehabilitation and resettlement (R&R) sites of the Sardar Sarovar Project. Although the government claims to have carried out its R&R duties satisfactorily, the situation on the ground is quite the opposite. Of the 634 children surveyed, 378 were found to be malnourished and the number of girls among them was as high as 60%. Of the total number of malnourished children, 119 were in the third and fourth stages. The two sites have separate PHCs, PDS outlets, gram panchayats and four anganwadis each. All the children were in the 0-6 age-group. This shows that they were born after their families were resettled. What conditions are like in the other six sites is a question open for study.What is clearly needed is a debate on the findings of this survey, from the social, economic, political, cultural and medico-anthropological perspective. Especially, vis-ÃÆ' -vis the government’s information on the subject. The report is being made public to facilitate just such a debate.India’s malnutrition problem is a systemic issue | | Girls in India are more malnourished as â€Å"inadequate resources of families are divided preferentially among men†.  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The problem of malnourishment in India is a reflection on its deeply entrenched poverty and a lack of functionality of its systems,† says author [EPA]| India’s growing riches have been the subject of many global discussions. In the past few years, India has responded to international emergencies by reaching out with support in cash and kind. However, India  has still not managed to get a grip on the problem of malnutrition its children face, a fact that India’s prime minister this year called a â€Å"national shame†.The facts are daunting – as many as nearly half of India’s children below five years are malnourished. Girls are even more malnourished as inadequate resources of families are divided preferentially among men. India’s nutrition problem shows among women as well – the malnourished girls grow up to be anaemic, deliver underweight babies who face an increased risk of dying and being sick right after their birth. India ranks 76 among 80 middle-income countries rated for the â€Å"best place to be a mother† according to the Save the Children’s Mothers’ Index released in May 2012.’Anganwadi’ centresThe problem of malnourishment in India is a reflection on its deeply entrenched poverty and a lack of functionality of its systems. Policymakers from the comfort of their oversized public-funded accommodation while examining the failure of their policies often argue that a country of India’s size – both in terms of geography as well as population – is difficult to administer. What they admit a little reluctantly is that the government-supported institutions are neither effective nor accountable to the people, and that the budget allocations in sectors critical for people’s well-being are still abysmally low. India’s wealth – no longer so new-found – has so far not filtered down to the areas which would make considerable difference to the lives of its common people.A question often asked in India is about the co-existence of hunger and malnutrition alongside the problem of plenty – of thousands of tonnes of food grains rotting due to poor storage in government stores while the poor go to bed hungry. Clearly, the problem is not of a lack of resources but of systems that ensure that the country’s opportunities and resources are more equitably and equally divided.India’s response to its massive problem of malnutrition has been largely through the Integrated Child Development Services, or ICDS as it is known. The ICDS runs preparatory schools-cum-health institutions called anganwadi centres where pregnant and lactating women and children below five years receive supplementary nutrition while children are also taught to take first steps towards learning letters and numbers. Many states have further equipped their anganwadi centres to enable them to treat the common ailments of  children.Considering the critical role of anganwadi centres in helping children remain healthy, they should have been universalised decades ago but they have not. Anganwadi centres cover only 50 per cent of India’s children. However, data as well as anecdotal evidence appearing in the form of newspaper reports points out that anganwadi centres do not function at their optimum capacity and efficiency. Their staff are not accountable to the people of the village, and being â€Å"influential† (some of them are known to be relatives of village headmen and other important members of the village) are not s usceptible to punitive action when they fail to perform their duty. Poverty and malnourishmentThat is a typical Indian situation – one can get away without being punished for one’s wrongdoings if one has the right connections. This is the bane of most of India’s institutions and facilities which are meant to serve the people but become, instead, means of employment and influence for a few. â€Å"Nearly half of India’s children below five years are malnourished.†| Under the patronage of this protection, doctors in government hospitals may remain absent from work without a note on the attendance register for days, teachers may not teach, clerks in offices may demand a bribe to perform a task which is the right of a citizen. The impact of dysfunctional systems on the lives of the poor and the marginalised is devastating as they have no alternatives. The poor die of common illnesses if they do not get treated at government hospitals, or they go borrow money to access a private hospital and go into debt. In fact, the WHO has said that 3.2 per cent Indians would fall below the poverty line because of high medical bills with about 70 per cent of Indians spending their entire income on healthcare and purchasing drugs. The Planning Commission also accepts that out of pocket expense to pay for healthcare costs is a growing problem in India. It says 39 million Indians are pushed to poverty because of ill health every year. Around 30 per cent in rural India didn’t go for any treatment for financial constraints in 2004. In urban areas, 20 per cent of ailments were untreated for financial problems the same year, said a recent study in the Lancet. The government needs to look at health and education as critically important sectors in the development paradigm. If India is to reap its demographic dividend, it cannot do so with half of its children malnourished and not reaching their full potential| Overview of Malnutrition Situation in Maharashtra Maharashtra: The data below are from the National Family Healthy Survey 2005-2006. Highlights: The nutrition situation in Maharashtra is slightly better than the national average with improvements from 1998-99 and 1992-93 except for an increase of anaemia prevalence among pregnant women. The feeding practice for children aged 6-9 months shows an alarming pattern with only 48% of children aged 6-9 months receiving solid or semisolid food and breast milk. This is significantly lower than the national average of almost 56%. Furthermore, the prevalence drops to 40% for rural areas compared with the national average of 54% and as low as 23.3% for non-educated mothers compared with the national average of 49%. The prevalence of overweight and obesity in Maharashtra is higher than the national average for both female and male with Mumbai reaching almost 35% of obesity among the female population. Within Maharashtra, there are significant differences between rural and urban areas with the ru ral areas being more affected by malnutrition. However, the most outstanding gap in all indicators is between non-educated and well-educated respondents. Malnutrition and Anaemia Rates Are High among Children * Almost 38% of children under age three are stunted (India – 38.4%) and almost 40% are underweight (India 45.9%). Both indicators have slightly improved from 1998-99 and 1992-93. * Wasting affects 14.6% of children under age (India 19%) with a steady improvement from 1998-99 and 1992-93. * Compared with urban areas, under-nutrition is higher in rural areas and in Mumbai. Similar to the national picture, there is a strong correlation between child malnutrition and the level of maternal education showing a two-fold difference between non-educated and well-educated mothers. The stunting and underweight prevalence for children with illiterate mothers is 52.9% and 53.1% respectively contrasted with 22.9% and 25.9% for children with well educated mothers. The stark difference may be linked to access to nutritious diet and complementary feeding at 6-9 months. * Almost 72% of children under age three are anaemic (India 79.2). There is a significant urban-rural divide with Mumbai having the lowest prevalence  with 59.5% compared with 76.8% in rural areas. The non-educated versus educated mothers difference is not as strong with 75% and 71% relatively. This may be linked to a more general poor quality of nutrition and hygiene conditions and limited access to iron supplementation. Improvements Needed in Infant and Child Feeding especially for the age 6-9 months * 53% of children are fed only breast milk for the first 6 months (India 46%). Exclusive breastfeeding is significantly higher among the non-educated mothers, in rural areas and in Mumbai. Work factor and access to breast milk substitutes may have an impact among urban and better educated mothers. The positive deviance in Mumbai may be associated with an increased awareness among the female working class and better baby-friendly employment conditions. * 51.8% of children under three years are breastfed within one hour of birth (India 23.4%) with no significant difference between urban and rural areas and between well-educated and non-educated mothers. * Only 47.8% of children aged 6-9 months receive solid or semisolid food and breast milk. This is significantly lower than the national average of almost 56%. The prevalence drops as low as 40% in rural areas (India rural 54%) and 23.3% among non-educated mothers (India non-educated 49%) showing a high-priority gap. The prevalence in urban areas and in Mumbai is 58% and 56.6% respectively (India urban 62.1%). * 32% of children age 12-35 months received vitamin A supplements in the six months before the survey (India 23%) with the highest prevalence in urban areas (34.2%) followed by rural areas (29.9%) and Mumbai (27%) with a significant difference between non-educated (26.2%) and well-educated mothers (32.2%). A significant percentage of Women and Men Are Either Too Thin or Too Fat * 32.6% of married women (India 33%) and almost 30% of men (India 28%) are too thin, according to the body mass index (BMI). Underweight is strikingly most common among the non-educated and the rural population compared with Mumbai  and urban areas that show a similar prevalence. * Overweight and obesity affects 17% of women (India 14.8%) and almost 16% of men (India 12%). Overweight and obesity are strikingly most common in urban areas and among the well-educated with Mumbai reaching almost 35% of obesity among the female population as compared with the national urban average of 29%. Anaemia is Widespread * 49% of women (India 56.2%) and 16.2% of men (India 24.3) suffer from anaemia. Among pregnant women, anaemia has increased from 52.6% to almost 58%. * Only 30.5% of pregnant women consume Iron and Folic Acid supplementation for 90 days (India 22.3%) with 16.4% among the non-educated women compared to 45.2% among the well-educated ones. Rural and urban areas have the same prevalence of 30.5% with Mumbai reaching only 27.5% (India urban 34.5% respectively) The bleakest numbers* at a glance:*(NOTE: Figures have been rounded to the closest zero for easier understanding of the ratio) 1. For every ten children aged three or less, born to illiterate mothers, five children are stunted – too short for their age. This is a sign of chronic malnutrition. 2. For every ten children aged three or less, born to illiterate mothers, five children are underweight – too thin for their age. This is a sign of acute and chronic malnutrition. 3. For every ten children aged three or less, born to illiterate mothers, two children are wasted – too thin for his/her age. This is a sign of acute malnutrition. Wasted children are at highest risk of dying from malnutrition or from any common child diseases like diarrhoea or respiratory infections. 4. For every ten children aged 6-9 months, born to illiterate mothers, only two receive solid or semi-solid foods in addition to Breast-milk as recommended. This jeopardizes their chances of survival and irreversibly impairs their future growth and development. 5. For every ten children aged one to three years, born to illiterate mothers, only three children received Vitamin A supplementation in the last six months prior the survey. 6. For every ten illiterate women aged 15-49 years, four are too thin. 7. For every ten pregnant illiterate women, six are anaemic but only two  take Iron and Folic Acid supplementation for 90 days as recommended. The higher the education of the mother, the better the nutrition status of themselves and their child.NOTE: In Maharashtra, for every ten women, 2 women are illiterate and 8 are educatedAmong the educated women, 3 are well-educated (10 years complete and above), 2 have 8-9 years complete and 3 have less than 8 years complete.

Lewis Carroll essays

Lewis Carroll essays Lewis Carroll is known to many as being a mystery to all who read his books and knew him. Lewis Carrolls Childhood and Schooling On January 27, 1832, Lewis Carroll (born Charles Lutwidge Dodgson) was born into Northern English with Iris connections family in Cheshire, England His grandfather (also named Charles Dodgson) had advanced through the ranks of the Anglican High Church. His grandfather died in 1803 when Lewis Carrolls father and uncle were babies. In the Dodgson family, Carroll was the oldest boy but already the third child of a four and a half year marriage. In the end, there were seven girls and four boys in the Dodgson family. His mother Frances June Lutwidge as his fathers first cousin. Lewis Carroll carried a gene of being a smart, full of feelings child. In his elementary school years, Carroll was taught at home. In his schooling agenda, Carroll was reading, The Pilgrims Progress at age seven. Carroll got severely sick hen he was five. He was naturally left handed but, suffered sever mind trauma. Lewis Carroll as sent away at age twelve. He was sent to a private school at nearby Richmond named Danbury; where he settled in nicely. Unfortunately, in 1845, Carrolls family moved away to Rugby school, which furthered his education. There he wasnt as happy as he was at the private school. Lewis Carroll was only at Rugby for to days when he received a devastating telegram from home. His mother had died from inflammation of the brain which as a stroke at the age of forty-seven (Dr. C. Sharper, 56). This motivated Carroll to work harder and achieve higher. Lewis Carroll failed to have a scholarship, but instead he had a mathematician major on him the Christ High Church College, Oxford University. He retained this for the rest of his life. There he took his bachelor's and master's degrees, was ordained a deacon of the Church of England, and taught mathema...

To Kill A Mockingbird Notes Essays - Films, To Kill A Mockingbird

To Kill A Mockingbird Notes Essays - Films, To Kill A Mockingbird To Kill A Mockingbird Notes To Kill A Mockingbird - Chapters 18-19 Summary Mayella testifies next, a reasonably clean nineteen-year- old girl who is obviously terrified. She says that she called Tom Robinson inside the fence that evening and offered him a nickel to break up a dresser for her, and that once he got inside the house he grabbed her and took advantage of her. In Atticus' cross-examination, Mayella reveals that she has seven siblings to care for, a drunken father, and no friends. Then Atticus examines her testimony and asks why she didn't put up a better fight, why her screams didn't bring the other children running, andmost importantlyhow Tom Robinson managed the crime with a useless left hand, torn apart by a cotton gin when he was a boy. Atticus begs her to admit that there was no rape, that her father beat her. She shouts at him and calls the courtroom cowards if they don't convict Tom Robinson, and then bursts into tears refusing to answer any more questions. In the recess that follows, Mr. Underwood notices the children up in the balcony, but Jem tells Scout that the newspaper editor won't tell Atticus although he might include it in the social section of the newspaper. The prosecution rests, and Atticus calls only one witnessTom Robinson. Tom testifies that he always passed the Ewell house on the way to work, and that Mayella often asked him to do chores for her. On the evening in question, she asked him to come inside the house and fix a door. When he got inside, however, there was nothing wrong with the door, and he noticed that the other children were gone. Mayella told him that she had saved her money and sent them all to buy ice cream, and then she asked him to lift a box down from a dresser. When he climbed up on a chair, she grabbed his legs, scaring him so much that he jumped down. Then she hugged him around the waist, and asked him to kiss her. As she struggled, her father appeared at the window, calling Mayella a whore and threatening to kill her, and then Tom fled. Link Deas, Tom's white employer, stands up and tells everyone that in eight years of work, he has never had any trouble from Tom. Judge Taylorexpels him furiously from the courtroom for interrupting; then Mr. Gilmer gets up and cross-examines Tom. The prosecutor points out that the defendant was once arrested for disorderly conduct, and gets Tom to admit that he has the strength, even with one hand, to hold a woman down and rape her. Then he begins to badger the witness, asking about his motives for always helping Mayella with her chores, and getting him to admit that I felt right sorry for her. That doesn't go over well in the courtroom black people are not supposed to feel sorry for a white person. Mr. Gilmer goes over Mayella's testimony, accusing Tom of lying about everything. Dill begins to cry and Scout takes him out of the courtroom. Commentary If Bob Ewell is villainous, his daughter is pitiable, and their miserable existence almost allows her to join the novel's parade of innocent victimsshe, too, is (up to a point) a kind of mockingbird. Lee's presentation of Mayella emphasizes her role as victimher father beats her and possibly molests her, while she takes care of the children and so lacks kind treatment that when Atticus calls her Miss Mayella,she accuses him of making fun of her. She has no friends, and Scout seems justified in thinking that she must have been the loneliest person in the world. Even Atticus pities her. Mayella's victimization is marred by her attempt to become a victimizer, to destroy Tom Robinson in order to cover her shame. We can have no real sympathy for Mayella Ewellwhatever her sufferings, she inflicts worse cruelty on others. Pity must be reserved for Tom Robinson, whose honesty and goodness render him supremely moral. Unlike the Ewells, he is hardworking, honest, and has enough compassion to make the fatal mistake of feeling sorry for Mayella Ewell, a white girl. His story is clearly the true version of events: the story leaves

Satire and Comedy Essays

Satire and Comedy Essays Satire and Comedy Paper Satire and Comedy Paper Satire Satire is a term applied to any work of literature or art whose objective is ridicule. It has significant functions in social and political criticism. Satirical literature exposes foolishness in all its forms, such as vanity, hypocrisy, sentimentality etc. It also attempts to effect reform through such exposure. Satirists, therefore, design a work of literature focusing on human or individual vices, follies, abuses, or shortcomings. They use satire as a literary technique to combat these vices and shortcomings, and to censure by means of ridicule, derision, burlesque, irony or other methods (New Encyclopedia Britannica, 1993, 10, 467). Satirical works are commonly critical. Hawthorn (2005:197) states, Satire attacks alleged vices and stupidities either of individuals or of whole communities or groups and its tools are ridicule, exaggeration and contempt. However, Sutherland (1958:2) points out that not all satirical works are equally critical. He argues that: 2 Some works are satirical throughout; in others the satire is only intermittent, one element in a more complex effect. The lines that separate the satirical from the unsatirical are often hard to define, either because the writer shifts easily and rapidly from one mood to another, or because the satirical tone is so rarefied as to be almost imperceptible. In addition to being critical, many satirical texts are humorous. To put it in Feinbergs words, crit icism and humor have to be present in a literary work to be called satiric (1967:60). Thus, it is the nature of satire to be humorous and critical in order to expose follies and vices of individuals and society, and if possible, to do justice to such erroneous practices. Several literary critics state that satire is a protean term that makes it difficult to come up with a fixed definition. In line with this, The New Encyclopedia Britannica, 2005, 23,173 states, together with its derivatives, it is one of the most heavily worked literary designations and one of the most imprecise. This book even goes to the extent of saying: No strict definition can encompass the complexity of a word that signifies, on one hand, a kind of literature as when one speaks of the satires of the Roman poet Horace or calls the American novelist Nathanael Wests A Cool Million a satire and, on the other hand, a mocking spirit or tone that manifests itself in many literary genres but can also enter into almos t any kind of human communication. Similarly, Feinberg (1967:18) points out that satire is such an amorphous genre that no two scholars define it in the same words. However, many literary scholars have attempted to give suitable working definitions based on their own perspectives. This does not exclude the definition stated in the 13 above source that states, Wherever wit is employed to expose something foolish or vicious, to criticism, there satire exists, whether it is in song or sermon, in painting or political debate, on television or in the movies. Nor does it disregard what Feinberg says in defining satire as: a playfully critical distortion of the familiar (1967:19). It is, therefore, important to mention the varying definitions of satire given by different writers at this point. One of the most widely accepted definitions of satire is the one that is given in A Glossary of Literary Terms by Abrams (1981:167). Abrams defines satire as: The literary art of diminishing a subject by making it ridiculous nd evoki ng toward it attitudes of amusement, contempt, indignation or scorn. It differs from the comic in that comedy evokes laughter mainly as an end in itself, while satire derides; that it uses laughter as a weapon and against a butt existing outside the work itself. That butt may be an individual (in personal satire), or a type of person, a class, an institution, a nation or even (as in Rochesters A Satyr against Mankind and much of Swifts Gullivers Travels, especially Book IV) the whole race of man. The above definition emphasizes the principal notion of satire as a literary work in which human vice or folly are attacked through such techniques as irony, derision, or wit. Accordingly, it is the nature of satire to ridicule mans naive acceptance of individuals and institutions at face value (Feinberg, 1963:19). It is also acknowledged that satire gives us pleasure, for it presents the subject matter to scrutiny through humorous ways. 14 Robert Harris (2004), points out that the best definitions of satire should be formulated from a combination of its corrective intent and its literary method of execution. He quotes Thralls definition as an acceptable definition of satire as follows: A literary manner that blends a critical attitude with humor and wit to the end that human institutions or humanity may be improved. The true satirist is conscious of the frailty of institutions of mans devising and attempts through laughter not so much to tear them down as to inspire a remodeling. It is important to note in the above definition that satire involves the fusion of laughter and contempt. Inseparable from any definition of satire is its corrective purpose. Ian Gordon (2002) points out the corrective purpose of the satirist saying that the satirist stands in opposition to the current state of affairs, endeavoring to change things either to what they were in a recalled and often mythologized, past, or to what they might be in a preferred, and frequently Utopian, future. It may follow from the above definitions that the corrective purpose of satire is expressed through a critical mode that includes laughter and contempt. Scholes and Sullivan (1986:8) define satire based on the view of the world presented in a literary text. They argue, A work that presents a fictional world worse than the real world is in th e mode of anti-romance, or satire. They also suggest, The world of satire emphasizes ugliness and disorder. These authors claim remind us that the theme of sati re can be presented through different techniques in order to maintain standards, reaffirm values, and to come up with reforms in the society. 15 To put it briefly, satire is concerned with the nature of reality. It exaggerates or understates to criticize human follies and vices for it has a corrective purpose. It reveals the contrast between reality and pretense; yet again, it uses comic devices in order to criticize and give us pleasure. As Feinberg (1967) puts it, the sphere of satire is criticism of man and society, a criticism made entertaining by humor and moving by irony and invective. For many literary scholars, efforts at defining satire may vary. However, the definitions such as those described above commonly share the view that satire is concerned with the criticism of individual and social evils. Moreover, at the heart of every satire, there exists a corrective purpose that is expressed through critical humor. 2. 2 Characteristics of Satire Satire, in prose or verse, employs critical humor to expose human wickedness and folly. In reflecting the salient characteristics of satire, Mitchell (2003) argues that satire attacks those institutions or individuals the satirist deems corrupt. In other words, one characteristic feature of satire is that it is concerned with ethical reform. The other characteristics of satire according to Mitchell are: It works to make vice laughable and/or reprehensible and thus bring social pressure on those who still engage in wrongdoing. It seeks a reform in public behavior, a shoring up of its audiences standards or at the very least a wake- up call in an otherwise corrupt culture. Satire is often implicit and assumes readers who can pick up on its moral clues. It is not a sermon. Satire in general attacks types the fool, the boor, the adulterer, the proud rather than specific persons. If it does attack some by name, rather than hoping to reform these persons, it seeks to warn the 16 public against approving of them. Satire is witty, ironic, and often exaggerated. It uses extremes to bring its audience to a renewed awareness of its ethical and spiritual danger. According to Ian Johnston (1998), one characteristic feature of satire is the desire to use precisely clear language to induce an audience to protest. As a result, the language of the satirist is full of irony, paradox, antithesis, colloquialism, anticlimax, obscenity, violence, vividness, and exaggeration. The satirist uses these techniques to describe painful or absurd situations or foolish or wicked persons or groups as vividly as possible. Johnston argues, The satirist believes that most people are blind, insensitive, and perhaps anesthetized by custom and resignation and dullness. The satirist wishes to make them see the truth at least that part of the truth which they habitually ignore. Moreover, Johnston considers morality as an important characteristic of satire. To put it in his words: At the basis of every good traditional satire is a sense of moral outrage or indignation. This conduct is wrong and needs to be exposed. Hence, to adopt a satiric stance requires a sense of what is right, since the target of the satire can only be measured as deficient if one has a sense of what is necessary for a person to be truly moral. Satire attacks socially objectionable behavior through humorous ways. It aims at amendment of vices by correction. As Feinberg (1967) writes on the characteristics of satire, its essential qualities are entertainment and its freshness. That is, the appeal of satire lies in its literary merit, brilliance, wit, humor, and freshness (7). Satire, therefore, shows old things in a new 17 way to reveal the contrast between reality and pretense through skillful manipulation of language. To put it in Feinbergs (1967:16) words: Satires are read because they are aesthetically satisfying as works of art, not because they are (as they may be) morally wholesome or ethically instructive. They are stimulating and refreshing because with commonsense briskness they brush away illusions and second han d opinions. With spontaneous irreverence, satire rearranges perspectives, scrambles familiar objects into incongruous juxtaposition, and speaks in a personal idiom instead of abstract platitude. It is important to note in the above quotation that satire entertains through humor, irony and invective. Russell and Brown (1967:xviii) also argue that where attack is absent or where it tends to turn almost wholly on extreme distortion, what may pass as satire becomes ineffective and does not deserve the name. 2. 3 The Purpose of Satire Harris (2004), highlights that the satirists goal is to expose vice and hypocrisy in order to effect reformation. The best satire, according to Harris, does not seek to do harm or damage by its ridicule, but rather it seeks to create a shock of recognition and to make vice impulsive so that the vice will be expunged from the person or society under attack or from the person a society intended to benefit by the attack. Thus, satire attempts to effect some changes in the behavior of the target as well as to encourage others not to behave in such a manner. Satire is concerned with justice, morality, and virtue. Maynard Mack (quoted by Harris) states that satire asserts the validity and necessity of norms 18 systematic, values, and meanings that are contained by recognizable codes. Accordingly, Harris notes that satire has moral and didactic purpose. He writes: Satire is inescapably moral and didactic (in the best sense of that unfortunately slandered word) even when no efinite, positive values are stated in the work as alternatives to the gross corruptions depictions by the attack. The satirist does not need to state specific moral alternatives to replace the villainy he attacks because the morality is either already present in the lip service his target pays to virtue, or it is apparent by implication. Likewise, Feinberg (1963:20) argues that the primary purpose of the satirist is to moralize. Humbert Wolfe (cited by Feinberg) strengthens this idea considering the satirists work as half-way etween a preacher and a wit; he has the purpose of the former, uses the weapon of the latter. In other words, what motivates the satirist is the hatred he has for the wrong and injustice as much as his love of the right and the just. Moreover, the satirist holds up human and individual wrong doings to censure in order to make us better. The art of satire is, therefore, the delivering of moral judgment and its objective is not to degrade man but to show him how he has degraded himself (Feinberg, 1968:23). The purpose of the satire, according to Sutherland (1958:11) is to compel man to what they have tried to ignore, and to destroy their illusions or pretenses. As a social critic, the satirist, therefore, makes us see familiar things in a new way compelling us to what we have ignored. Accordingly, any kind of satirical comment may magnify, diminish or distort to tear off the guise and expose the naked truth, or to bring someone to his sense s. 19 Abrams (1981:67) agrees on the corrective purpose of satire. He says, Satire has usually been justified by those who practice it as a corrective of human vices and folly. Similarly, Harris (2002) argues that the corrective purpose of satire in exposing individual and human vice and hypocrisy succeeds only to the extent that the audience responds to the attack. Hence, as Sutherland (1958:20) puts it: Satire is not for the literal-minded. It exists on at least two levels, the overt and the implied; and it can only function properly when the tact, the intelligence, and the magination of the satirist are met by a corresponding response in the reader. In short, satire attacks erroneous practices of individuals in particular and human beings at large with intent to bring about changes. These changes may have corrective or moralizing purpose. That is, at the heart of every satire there is criticism that is geared towards exposing hypocrisy, pretense, corruptions, and other shortcoming of human beings. Therefore, satire aims at displaying the critical attitude of the satirist in order to reaffirm values, maintain standards and rectify the follies and vices of the society. 2. 4 Techniques of Satire It has been pointed out earlier that the essence of satire is giving pleasure of criticism by combining or contrasting ideas. Accordingly, satirists use different techniques to convey their messages. Certain specific literary techniques lend themselves to satire because they can contain a measure both of wit and of humor. Among them are exaggeration, distortion, understatement, innuendo, simile, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, parable, and allegory (Harris, 2002). On the other hand, Feinberg (1967) lists distortion, indirection, externality, brevity, and variety as major techniques of satire. Other scholars, such as Matthew Hogart, Gilbert Highet and Northrop Frye, 20 add reduction, invective, caricature, burlesque, and reduction ad absurdum to the list. A brief discussion of the prominent techniques has been presented as follows. 2. 4. 1 Exaggeration Exaggeration is one of the most commonly used techniques in satire. Harris (2002), notes that exaggeration is one of the best ways to get the target to recognize or admit that a vice exists. The satirist exaggerates in order to make the unseeing see, and the seeing-but-complacent oppose and expunge corruption. Hence, exaggeration as a satirical technique plays an important role. To use Feinbergs (1967:108) words: The exaggeration of satirists is not as purposeless as it tries to appear. What the satirist exaggerates is the bad, the foolish, the hypocritical; what he minimizes or omits is the good, the sensible, and the honest. The resulting scene is not only exaggerated but heavily biased-against the victims of the satirists attack. In other words, the satirist uses exaggeration to describe painful or absurd situations or foolish or wicked persons as vividly as possible. On top of that, as a dispassionate observer of humanity and the irate attacker of particular individuals (Knight, 2005), the satirist employs exaggeration to make his observation and attack effective. 2. 4. 2 Distortion The technique of the satirist, as indicated earlier, consists of a playfully critical distortion of the familiar. Distortion refers to changing the perspective of a condition or event by isolation (separation from its ordinary surroundings) or by stressing some aspects and deemphasizing others (Harris, 2002). Hence, the satirist distorts in many ways. For instance, he 21 may minimize the good qualities of the person or institution that he is attacking. For example, in Gulliver’s Travels (1726), Swift exposes humanity in all its baseness and cruelty using this technique. Sa tirists may also magnify the bad ones making isolated instances seem typical. 2. 4. 3 Indirection and Invective One often-used satiric technique is indirection. Many literary critics agree th at the quality of satiric representation is effective when the attack is indirect. David Worcester (cited by Feinberg, 1967:93) remarks that satire is the engine of anger rather than the direct expression of anger. Similarly, Sutherland (1958:20) points out that twentieth century satire relies more and more on the indirectness of irony, innuendo and fantasy. Accordingly, the indirectness of satire helps the satirist to make his or her attack tolerable by making it entertaining. As Johnston (1998) suggests satires that are very direct are boring and ineffectual. Unlike indirection, invective is very abusive. It is an open insult used occasionally for shock effect. It usually lacks irony in order to attack a particular target. According to Johnston, it is the least inventive of the satirists tools. Besides, the danger of pure invective is that one can quickly get tired of it, since it offers limited opportunity for inventive wit. 2. 4. 4 Burlesque Burlesque refers to ridiculous exaggeration in language, usually one that makes the discrepancy between the words and the situation or the character silly. To use Johnstons example, to have a king speak like an idiot or an ordinary worker speak as a king is burlesque. Similarly, a very serious situation can be burlesqued by having the characters in a literary text speak or behave in ridiculously inappropriate ways. In other words, burlesque creates a large gap between the situation or the characters and the style with which they speak or act out the event. 22 2. 4. 5 Irony Irony is a systematic use of double meaning where meaning of words is opposite of the literal or expected meaning. It is a stylistic device or figure of speech in which the real meaning of the words is different from the literal meaning. As Muecke (1969:3) puts it, irony may be a weapon in satirical attack. Likewise, Johnston (1998) notes that irony brings two contrasting meanings into play. Consequently, it becomes satiric when the real meaning appears to contradict the surface meaning. It should, however, be noted that irony is not confined to satire. To put it briefly, satirists use a variety of literary devices. They may use various techniques, such as those described above, in order to say two or more things at one time, and to compare, equate, or contrast for satirical purposes. Moreover, these techniques provide variety, conciseness, and opportunity for employing wit and humor. In explaining the use of satirical techniques, Harris (2004) writes the following about satirical techniques: The satire must be presented in a manner that will bring action, and in a world of complacent hypocrites, irony, with its various means of presentation, is essential; the message cannot be derived without it, if the message is to have any tangible effect. In a two-word abstract, the purpose of satire is the correction or deterrence of vice, and its method is to attack hypocrisy through the ironic contrast between values and actions. The aforementioned quotation highlights that the techniques the satirist uses have to serve the purpose the satirist has in mind. It is an indispensable 23 quality of satire to employ appropriate techniques. Furthermore, Hawthorn (2005:197) remarks that the satirist is concerned with drawing our attention to what he or she is attacking rather than to create characters, situations and events that are believable in and for themselves. That is, a novelist may include satirical elements in works that do not, overall, merit the term satirical novel (and indeed most novelists do). Therefore, literary works that are not usually categorized as satirical (novel or short story) may use the major weapons of satire in order to diminish a set of beliefs by making it appear ridiculous. Finally, based on the techniques the satirist employs satire can be divided into formal or direct and informal or indirect (Abrams, 1981:168). Abrams also distinguishes two types of formal satire, namely Horatian satire and Juvenalian satire, whereas the Menippean satire is indirect. On the other hand, Juvenalian satire is harsher; more pointed, and often attacks particular people with an invective attack. Horatian satire is mild and gentler. To put it in the words of Abrams (1981:169): In Horatian satire the character of the speaker is that of an urbane, witty, and tolerant man of the world, who is moved more often to wry amusement than to indignation at the spectacle of human folly, pretentiousness, and hypocrisy, and who uses a relaxed and informal language to evoke a smile at human follies and absurdities ometimes including his own. In Juvenalian satire the character of the speaker is that of a serious moralist who uses a dignified and public style of utterance to decry modes of vice and error which are no less dangerous because they are ridiculous, and who undertakes to evoke contempt, moral indignation, or an unillusioned sadness at the aberrations of men. 24 2. 5 The Nature of Comedy Comedy, according to Abrams (1971:26), is a form of literature that is de signed to amuse by use of wit, humor, criticism or ridicule. He defines it as: a work in which the materials are selected and managed primarily in order to interest and amuse us: the characters and their discomfitures engage our delighted attention rather than our profound concern, we feel confident that no great disaster will occur, and usually the action turns out happily for the chief characters. Abrams also notes that even though comedy is commonly applied to dramas, the comic form also occurs in prose fiction and narrative poetry. In whichever form it appears comedy attempts to arouse and satisfy human instinct for mischief. In line with this, Fowler (1973:31) has the following to say about the materials of comedy: Comedy in itself is neither morally useful nor immoral: it can perpetuate and extend misconceptions as well as ridicule them. Sometimes, however, dramatists use the irresponsible instinctual speed of comedy to lead the audience to a more complex intellectual awareness. According to John Morreall (http: //www. dbu. du/ mitchell/comedytr. htm) there are many characteristics that make up a comedy. One among them is the fact that comedy is more imaginative, stressing playfulness. For this reason, comedy tends to look for a variety of answers and does not need to solve everything. Secondly, comedy tends to call attention to the incongruities in the order of things, be it political, social, or religious. Thirdly, comic characters are often ironic and disengaged from the situation; they tend to respond wi th wit, imagination, or cynicism. 25 The other characteristic feature of comedy is that its language is fluent and articulate. To put it in Fowlers words: Characters do not feel a need to develop exploratory, stretching uses of language to account for themselves and the world around them, but are satisfied that the relationships between them and the world are simple and comprehensible (1973:32). It is also the nature of comedy to reveal playfulness. Even if it has its serious side, the comic vision tends to treat large portions of ife as not quite so serious. However, satiric comedy, according to Abrams (1971:27) attacks the disorders of society by making ridiculous the violators of its standards of morals or manners. In addition to this, comedy involves exaggeration, incongruity, and contradictions as techniques. It also uses contrast between social order and individual, suspension of natural laws, and comic premise to provide structural and thematic unity for comic dialogue. Ma ny argue that producing pleasure through laughter is the primary nature of comedy. On the other hand, Sypher (1991:148) states that the pleasure caused by the laughter of comedy is not a pure enjoyment. He further notes that it is not a pleasure that is exclusionary esthetic or altogether disintegrated. It always implies a secret or unconscious intent, if not of each one of us, at all events of society as a whole. Therefore, comedy may have a critical intent. Hence, comedy is not always a naive joke; nor is it always seriously stuffed with didactic moral issues. It expresses the characteristics of men in the ordinary circumstances of everyday life. As Sypher (1991:149) puts it: the comic is not always an indication of a fault, in the moral meaning of the word, and if critics insist on seeing a fault, even though a trifling one, in the ludicrous, they must point out what it is here that exactly distinguishes the trifling from the serious. 26 2. 6 The purpose of Comedy Comedies usually tend to focus on the larger community and spend more time paying attention to the interaction between groups. As a result, they often question tradition and those in authority. Comedy, according to Eric Trumbull, serves the purpose of looking at the world in which basic values are asserted but natural laws suspended in order to underscore human follies and foolishness. That is, in comedy we are usually being asked to laugh at our common human foibles and ourselves. Besides, comedy reminds us our inescapable human limitations. Sypher (1991:241-2) discusses several social meanings of comedy. He points out that in its earliest days comedy is an essential pleasure mechanism valuable to the society. To put it in his words: Comedy is a momentary and publicly useful resistance to authority and an escape from its pressures, and its mechanism is a free discharge of repressed psychic energy or resentment through laughter . . . The ambivalence of comedy reappears in its social meanings, for comedy is both hatred and revel, rebellion and defense, attack and escape. It is revolutionary and conservative. Socially, it is both sympathy and persecution. Comedy also serves the social purpose of affirming the security of any group already unsure of itself. With this regard, Sypher says, the comedian banishes doubt by ridicules and is the diplomatic artist (244). He further notes that comedy can relieve the stress between compelling ideals by laughter. In other words, comedy may enable us to adjust incompatible standards without resolving the clash between them. Finally, here is how Sypher (1991:245) describes the use of comedy in helping us with our disillusions: 7 Comedy can be a means of mastering our disillusions when we are caught in a dishonest or stupid society. After we recognize the misdoings, the blunders, we can liberate ourselves by a confident, wise laughter that brings a catharsis of our discontent. We see the flaws in things, but we do not always need to concede the victory, even if we live in a human world. If we can laugh wisely enough at ourselves and others, the sense of guilt, dismay, anxiety, or fear can be lifted . Unflinching and undaunted we see where we are. This strengthens us as well as society. To put it briefly, apart from the pleasure that we get from it, comedy enables us to laugh at evils and errors of human beings. Consequently, it serves the purpose of psychological compensation. In other words, comedy helps us escape from the vices and follies of individuals and societies making us laugh at the imperfections of the world around us. Not only that, but comedy can also be quite in accord with stern morality. It should, however, be noted here that what distinguishes satire from comedy, as Fowler (1973:167) put it, is its lack of tolerance for folly or human imperfection. 2. 7 Satire and Comedy Satire and comedy often shade into each other in ways tha t make an exact borderline difficult to draw. Like satire, comedy has a corrective purpose. The New Encyclopedia Britannica (2005,23,151) highlights that the comic artists purpose is to hold a mirror up to society to reflect its follies and vices, in the hope that they will, as a result be mended. Correspondingly, Johnston shares this view of the corrective purpose of comedy. He argues that satire is a particular use of humor for overtly moral purposes. According to him, satire seeks to use laughter not just to remind us of our common often ridiculous humanity, but rather to expose those moral excesses, those 28 corrigible sorts of behavior which transgress what the writer sees as the limits of acceptable moral behavior. One characteristic feature of satire, as indicated earlier, is criticism and humor. That is, the technique of the satirist consists of a playful critical distortion (Feinberg, 1967:19). Although not everything humorous may be satirical, Harris (2004) states that satire uses humor to make the attack funny. To put it in h is words: Satire, like all literature and poetry, must be intellectually rewarding, be reasonably well written, and especially must entertain in order to survive- and in the particular case of satire, in order to be received at all. The basic mood of attack and the disapproval needs to be softened to some xtent and made more palatable; wit and humor serve this end by making the criticism entertaining, and even attractive. The satirists major objective is unmasking or exposing human follies, vices and shortcomings. As Sypher (1991:242) put it, certainly the laugh of the satirist is often a sneer; and there is an undercurrent of satire in most comedy. As a result, when the satirist uses comic elements, it will only be for the purpose of criticism. In other words, wherever wit is employed to expose something foolish or vicious to criticism, there satire exists. Sutherland (1958:7) strongly argues that comedy, like satire deals with the common errors of our life. He says, If we can agree that it is the satirists intention to expose, or deride, or condemn that distinguishes him from the writer of comedy, then we shall probably find that much of what has conventionally been referred to as comedy should more probably be called satire. On the other hand, the tone of satire may vary in different works 29 eventhough the elements of attack and humor is associated with the efinition of satire. In line with this, Russell and Brown (1967:xviii) argue many satirical works are so playful or whimsical as to preclude the idea of attack, and many other satires, even some acknowledged to be great, lack humor and tend to become ponderous. However, satire and comedy are not exactly the same. Abrams (1981:167) argues that satire differs from the comic in that comedy evokes laughter mainly as an end, while satire derides; that is it uses laughter as a weapo n, and against a butt existing outside the work itself. What sets satire apart from comedy, according to Ian Johnston, is that in satire there is a clear and overt didactic intention. On the other hand, normal comedy aims at producing laughter at our common follies and ourselves. In line with this, Feinberg (1967:101) has the following to say: Uncritical humor is not satire, nor is all satire humorous. But since satirists use all the comic devices for the purpose of criticism, to see how satire works it is necessary to examine four basic techniques of humor: incongruity, urprise, pretense, and catering to the superiority of the audience. In general, there is a common agreement among literary critics that satire uses comedy for the effect of criticism. Besides, as Sutherland (1958:10) puts it, we must be prepared to find the writer of a comedy losing his moral neutrality and slipping into satire, and the satirist occasionally loosening his control over the reader and relaxing into co medy.

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